May 1964: 'Great Society' speeches

In the wake of President Kennedy's assassination in 1963, a wave of sympathy and public support enabled President Johnson to pass a number of Kennedy administration proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Building on this momentum, Johnson introduced his own vision for America: "the Great Society" -- in which America ended poverty, promoted equality, improved education, rejuvenated cities, and protected the environment. This became the blueprint for the most far-reaching agenda of domestic legislation since the New Deal.

     -- From PBS (link: @)

Thursday, May 7, Ohio University

     So to you of this student body, I say merely as a statement of fact, America is yours, yours to make a better land, yours to build the Great Society. ... And with your courage and with your compassion and your desire, we will build the Great Society. It is a Society where no child will go unfed, and no youngster will go unschooled. Where no man who wants work will fail to find it. Where no citizen will be barred from any door because of his birthplace or his color or his church. Where peace and security is common among neighbors and possible among nations.

* "Johnson Lists Objectives for U.S." (Associated Press, May 7): @

Friday, May 22, University of Michigan

     For in your time we have the opportunity to move not only toward the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society. The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are totally committed in our time. But that is just the beginning. The Great Society is a place where every children can find knowledge to enrich his mind and to enlarge his talents. It is a place where leisure is a welcome chance to build and reflect, not a feared cause of boredom and restlessness. It is a place where the city of man serves not only the needs of the body and the demands of commerce but the desire for beauty and the hunger for community. It is a place where man can renew contact with nature. It is a place which honors creation for its own sake and for what it adds to the understanding of the race. It is a place where men are more concerned with the quality of their goals than the quantity of their goods. But most of all, the Great Society is not a safe harbor, a resting place, a final objective, a finished work. It is a challenge constantly renewed, beckoning us toward a destiny where the meaning of our lives matches the marvelous products of our labor.

* " 'Great Society' Johnson's Goal" (The Toledo Blade, May 22): @

     -- Photo from May 22 speech (from Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan)

* Text of May 7 speech (The American Presidency Project): @

* Text and audio of May 22 speech (American Rhetoric): @

* "The Anatomy of a Speech: Lyndon Johnson's Great Society Address" (Michigan Historical Collections, December 1978): @
* "Great Society Emerging As Johnson's Key Slogan" (Associated Press, June 2): @

* "The Great Society at 50" (The Washington Post): @
* Entry from "Safire's Political Dictionary" (William Safire, 2008): @ 

---

Friday, May 1, 1964: BASIC programming language

At 4 a.m. on May 1, 1964, Dartmouth professor John Kenemy and a student programmer simultaneously typed RUN on neighboring terminals. When they both got back answers to their simple programs, time-sharing and BASIC were born.
     -- From "BASIC Begins at Dartmouth" (link: @)

BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was invented at Dartmouth College in 1964 by John Kenemy and Thomas Kurtz to allow students to write simple programs. The students used BASIC on a time-sharing system, which allowed them to reach the computer using terminals in their dorms. The computers of that era were expensive and hard to use and there were only a few computer languages to choose from, Fortran and Algol being two of the most common. BASIC came into being partly because these other languages seemed too hard for most students to learn.
     -- From "Concise Encyclopedia of Computer Science" (2004; link: @)

     -- Image from first BASIC instruction manual (Dartmouth, May 1964; link: @)

* BASIC instruction manual, October 1964 (from bitsavers.org): @
* BASIC instruction manual, January 1968 (from bitsavers.org): @
* Entry on John Kenemy (CIS Graduate School, Dartmouth): @
* Entry on Thomas E. Kurtz (IEEE Computer Society): @
* "50 Years of BASIC, the Programming Language That Made Computers Personal" (Time magazine): @
* "50 years of BASIC" (Network World): @

* Excerpt from "Encyclopedia of Microcomputers" (1988): @ 

---

Thursday, March 12, 1964: New Hampshire lottery

They're off and running in the New Hampshire sweepstakes, the nation's only state-sponsored lottery in the 20th Century. Tickets went on sale at Rockingham Park race track last night and some 3,600, including Gov. John W. King, paid $3 for a chance to win $100,000.

     -- Associated Press, March 13 (link to story: @)

* "Gambling For The Yankee Dollar" (Sports Illustrated, March 30): @

* "New Hampshire Lottery Drum Yields First Racing Tickets" (Associated Press, July 15): @

* "Big Draw In A Little State" (Sports Illustrated, July 27): @

* "Sweepstakes Copped by Roman Brother" (Associated Press, September 13): @

* "Roman Brother Wins New Hampshire Sweepstakes" (newsreel): @

* "The $100,000 Finish in First U.S. Sweeps" (Life magazine, September 25): @

* "New Hampshire Sweepstakes: Early Returns Are Indecisive" (Associated Press, December 13): @

* New Hampshire Lottery history (from www.nhlottery.com): @

* Lottery timeline (from North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries): @ 

---

October 1963: Fred Rogers

Fred Rogers first appears as the on-camera host of "Misterogers," a 15-minute daily show for children that ran on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The show was the successor to "Children's Corner" (1954-1961) and the forerunner to "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" (1968-2001). From the episode list at The Neighborhood Archive Blog, it appears Rogers' first on-camera appearance was in mid-October, 1963.

Photo from CBC; note the spelling of the word "neighbourhood."

* Biography (from Fred Rogers Center): @

* Biography (from The Fred Rogers Company): @

* Interview (from the Archive of American Television): @

* "Mister Rogers: A Biography of the Wonderful Life of Fred Rogers" (Jennifer Warner, 2013): @

* "Fred Rogers and His Legacy" (chapter from "Pittsburgh Film History: On Set in the Steel City," John Tiech, 2012): @ 

---

Monday, September 16, 1963: Prince Edward County schools

     
     FARMVILLE, Va. -- Negro children return to school in Prince Edward County today for the first time since public schools were closed four years to avoid desegregation.

     The children are attending free private schools set up only a month ago at the urging of President Kennedy.

     Trustees of the Prince Edward Free School Association expect between 1,200 and 1,600 Negro pupils to enroll.

     At least two white children were to join the Negroes in the first classroom integration in Prince Edward. They are Richard D. Moss, son of Dr. C.G. Gordon Moss, dean of Longwood College and an outspoken critic of the school closing, and Letitia Tew, 7, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. W.W. Tew of Throck. Tew is a tobacco farmer.

     White children in Prince Edward have attended private segregated schools since 1959. They must pay tuition.

     The free schools were set up as a one-year emergency measure while the 11-year-old legal battle against segregated public schools is carried back to the U.S. Supreme Court.

     -- The Associated Press, September 16

    -- Photo from Corbis Images. Original caption reads: "School doors swung open 09/16 for children of Prince Edward County, where public schools had been padlocked since 1959 in advance of court-ordered integration. Neil Sullivan (L), director of schools, smiles as Alfred Brown hoists the American flag in front of the school building, and other students recite the Pledge of Allegiance.

Note: The county's public schools would reopen in September 1964. ("Prince Edward Schools Open After 5 Years": @)

* "Negroes Welcome New School" (Associated Press, September 17): @

* "The Lock Begins to Open" (Ebony magazine, November, Page 63): @

* "Prince Edwards' 'Massive Resistance' " (John Alfred Hamilton, Nieman Reports, 1962): @

* "Massive Resistance in a Small Town" (Humanities magazine, September/October 2013): @

* "Moton School Strike and Prince Edward County School Closings" (from Encyclopedia of Virginia): @

* "The Closing of Prince Edward County's Schools" (from Virginia Historical Society): @ 
* Edward H. Peeples Prince Edward County (Va.) Public Schools Collection (from VCU Libraries): @

* "The Tragedy of Public Schools: Prince Edward County, Virginia" ("A Report for the Virginia Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights," January 1964; from Peeples collection): @

* "A Study in Infamy: Prince Edward County, Virginia" (Picott and Peoples, Phi Delta Kappan, May 1964; from Peeples collection): @

* Robert Russa Moton Museum, Farmville, Virginia: @

* DOVE (Desegregation of Virginia Education project): @

* "The Educational Lockout of African Americans in Prince Edward County, Virginia, 1959-1964" (Terence Hicks and Abul Pitre, 2010): @ 

* "Southern Stalemate: Five Years Without Public Eduation in Prince Edward County, Virginia" (Christopher Bonastia, 2012): @

* TV footage (from Television News of the Civil Rights Era, 1950-1970, University of Virginia; scroll down to Prince Edward County clips): @

* "Locked Out: The Fall of Massive Resistance" (video; from Classroom Clips): @

* "The Legacy of Massive Resistance" (audio; from "With Good Reason" program, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities): @ 

---

Sunday, August 18, 1963: James Meredith graduates from Ole Miss

     
     The white people stared stiffly ahead, without expression. The few Negroes in the audience watched somberly from small, self-conscious islands.

     Except for a few glances, neither group seemed to look at the other. Together, under the tall oaks, they sat in awkward silence and watched what neither had ever seen before.

     James Howard Meredith, a slight man of 30, became the first Negro to graduate from the University of Mississippi in its 115-year history. Without incident, he received what some are calling the $5 million diploma, that being the estimated cost of the soldiers and U.S. marshals it took to get and keep Meredith at Ole Miss.

     The scene Sunday bore no resemblance to the night he entered, last Sept. 30, in an explosion of violence and death. Few people at the graduation at the graduation were aware of the 16 marshals standing inconscpicously on the fringes of the crowd.

     -- Saul Pett, Associated Press. Full story: @

     Photo by Associated Press

* "Meredith's Reactions On Final Day at Mississippi U Chronicled" (Associated Press, August 17): @

* "Meredith: First Negro Graduate of Ole Miss" (Associated Press, August 19): @

* "Mississippi Gives Meredith Degree" (New York Times, August 19): @

* Letter from Meredith to Attorney General Robert Kennedy (September 5, from JFK Library): @

* "I Can't Fight Alone" (Look magazine, April 19, 1963): @

* Earlier post on Meredith's enrollment (September-October, 1962): @ 

---

Saturday, April 6, 1963: Learning disabilities

     From the Learning Disabilities Association of America (link below):

     On April 6, 1963, a group of parents convened a conference in Chicago entitled "Exploration into the Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child." Professionals from various disciplines and with diverse and extensive clinical experience in dealing with the needs of these children participated. Professionals and parents shared a common concern: the recognition of the dire need for services for their children, services that did not exist.

     The 1963 conference articulated the cornerstones on which the field of Learning Disabilities is based. The underlying assumptions put forth provided the frameworks for legislation, theories, diagnostic procedures, educational practices, research and training models. A consensus was reached on a name for the category ... the term "Learning Disabilities," embedded within the title of Dr. Samuel Kirk's conference paper, was selected.

Note: Kirk first used the term "learning disabilities" in his 1962 book "Educating Exceptional Children" (link to 2012 edition below).

* "Educating Exceptional Children" (Kirk et al): @

* Learning Disabilities Association of America: @

* "Definition of learning disabilities" (from National Association of Special Education Teachers): @

* "Learning disabilities: Historical Perspectives" (from National Research Center on Learning Disabilities): @

* "Learning disabilities movement turns 50" (Washington Post, April 2013): @

* Obituary of Samuel Kirk (New York Times, July 1996): @ 

---

Monday, January 28, 1963: Integration at Clemson

From The Associated Press (link to full story below):

   Negro Harvey Gantt, neat and evidently calm, broke South Carolina's historic racial bars in public education today by enrolling in Clemson College as a transfer student from Iowa State University.
   Uniformed highway patrolmen imposed strict security, checking every car entering the campus, as the 20-year-old Charleston, S.C., native went through the usual entrance routine -- having his picture taken, paying dues, etc.
   ... It was precisely 1:45 a.m. when Gantt signed his registration card, officially becoming the first Negro student integration in the South Carolina public school system at any level. South Carolina was the last state to resist school integration at any level.

* "Negro Student Enrolled at Clemson" (The Sumpter Daily Item, January 28, 1963): @

* "Clemson Ends Segregation Peacefully" (The Tiger News, Clemson newspaper, Feb. 1, 1963): @
* Summary (from Clemson's Office of Institutional Research): @
* "Integration with Dignity" (Clemson University Digital Press): @

* "Harvey Gantt and the Desegregation of Clemson University" (Dr. H. Lewis Suggs, Clemson): @

* Excerpt from "The High Seminary" (Jerome V. Reel, 2011): @
* Gantt interview (from Oral Histories of the American South, University of North Carolina, 1986): @
* "Harvey Gantt through the years" (photo gallery, The State newspaper): @

* Harvey B. Gantt Center for African-American Arts + Culture: @ 
* Blog post on University of Georgia integration (January 11, 1961): @

* Blog post on University of Mississippi integration (October 1, 1962): @

---

Monday, January 14, 1963: George Wallace's inaugural address

Alabama's new governor gives his inauguration speech, fiery in tone and defiant about the authority of the federal government. It includes this memorable line: "In the name of the greatest people that have ever trod this earth, I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny, and I say segregation now ... segregation tomorrow ... and segregation forever."

From The Associated Press: "The new governor faces a racial showdown almost certainly within months after taking office. Three Negroes have applied for admission to the all-white University of Alabama."

Photo from Corbis Images.

* Transcript (from Alabama Department of Archives and History Digital Collections): @

* Video (from Alabama Department of Archives and History; last 3 minutes are missing): @
* Short video excerpt (from ABC News): @

* Segment from Radio Diaries: @
* "Shouting Defiance, Wallace Sworn In" (Tuscaloosa News, January 14): @
* "New Alabama Governor Faces Racial Crisis" (Washington, Pa., Observer, January 14): @
* "A speech that lives in infamy" (Charles J. Dean, al.com, 2013): @
* "The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics" (Dan T. Carter, 1995): @ 

---

Monday, June 25, 1962: Engel v. Vitale

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that voluntary prayer in public schools violates the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment prohibition of a state establishment of religion. New York state's Board of Regents had written and authorized a voluntary nondenomination prayer that could be recited by students at the beginning of each school day. In 1958-59 a group of parents that included Steven Engel in Hyde Park, N.Y., objected to the prayer ... and sued the school board president, William Vitale. The prayer which proponents argued was constitutional because it was voluntary and promoted the free exercise of religion (also protected in the First Amendment, was upheld by New York's courts, prompting the petitioners to file a successful appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. ... The decision, the first in which the Supreme Court had ruled unconstituional public school sponsorship of religion, was unpopular with a broad segment of the American public. (from www.britannica.com)

The prayer in question: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country."

The vote was 6-1, with Justices Byron White and Felix Frankfurter not taking part in the decision. (The case was argued on April 3, but White did not take his seat until April 16. Frankfurter suffered a stroke on April 5, leading to his retirement in August.)

Photo from Corbis Images, taken June 27, 1962, the day after the ruling, in San Antonio, Texas.

* Text of ruling, including links to concurring opinion from Justice William O. Douglas and dissenting opinion from Justice Potter Stewart (from www.law.cornell.edu): @

* Short summary and link to audio of oral arguments (from www.oyez.com): @

* Entry from www.uscourts.gov: @

* Entry from "The Encyclopedia of American Law" (David Andrew Schultz, 2002): @

* "Prayer and Scripture Reading in Public Schools: (from www.firstamendmentstudies.org): @

* "Atheists vs. Evangelists: The School Prayer Decision of 1962" (The Saturday Evening Post, 2012): @

* "Engel v. Vitale: Prayer in the Schools" (book by Susan Dudley Gold, 2006): @

---

Friday, June 15, 1962: The Port Huron Statement

We are people of this generation, bred in at least modest comfort, housed now in universities, looking uncomfortably to the world we inherit. ... 

If we appear to seek the unattainable, as it has been said, then let it be known that we do so to avoid the unimaginable.
     -- the opening and closing words of the Port Huron Statement, the founding document of the Students for a Democratic Society, which met June 11-15 in Port Huron, Michigan.

In 1962, college students who had been active in the civil rights movement and the peace movement created Students for a Democratic Society. SDS represented what was called the New Left. At its organizing meeting in Port Huron, Michigan, SDS adopted a manifesto drafted by Tom Hayden, a graduate student at the University of Michigan. The Port Huron Statement was a wide-ranging critique of American society -- of racial injustice, the dangers of nuclear war, the failure to develop peaceful atomic energy, the Cold War, the maldistribution of wealth, the political apathy of students, and the exhaustion of liberal ideology.

     -- From the 2000 book "The American Reader: Words That Moved a Nation" (edited by Diane Ravitch)

* Original draft and final version (from www.sds-1960s.org): @ 

* PDF (1964 edition): @
* "Port Huron Statement" (University of Michigan): @
* "The New Left" (from www.digitalhistory.uh.edu): @
* "The Port Huron Statement at 50" (New York Times, March 2012): @
* "The Port Huron Statement: Still Radical at 50" (from In These Times magazine): @

* "The Port Huron Statement @ 50" (New York University): @
* "The Port Huron Statement Today" (comic book, Paul Buhle and Gary Dumm, 2012): @

* Tomhayden.com: @

* 2010 video of Hayden speech: @ 

---

Tuesday, June 12, 1962: Underground school / fallout shelter

Abo Elementary School in Artesia, New Mexico, is dedicated. The school, built entirely underground, also functions as a fallout shelter. Classes would begin on August 28.

From the 2011 book "Artesia," by Nancy Dunn and Naomi Florez of the Artesia Historical Museum & Art Center:

Conceived at the height of the Cold War and the era of bomb-shelter construction, the school was built 18 feet underground and covered by a 21-inch thick, steel-reinforced concrete slab. Heavy steel doors said to be designed to hold up under a nuclear explosion were placed inside the aboveground entrances. The school's campus covered 10 acres, and the roof doubled as a playground. Besides having traditional school features, such as classrooms for 540 students, a cafeteria/multipurpose room, and modern restrooms, Abo School boasted an emergency entrance equipped with a shower to remove fallout particles, an air-conditioning system designed to filter out radioactivity, a generator to supply emergency power, and a morgue. Emergency rations were stored in the teachers' room. By 1989, the rations, outdated medical supplies, and body bags were discarded, and the morgue was used to store cafeteria supplies. Abo School was replaced by Yeso Elementary School in 1995. ... Because the school was underground, it was felt that students would be able to concentrate better on their lessons, as there were no windows to look out of, and the air-conditioning system was thought to help children with allergies and asthma.

* Excerpt from "Underground Buildings: More Than Meets the Eye" (book by Loretta Hall, 2004): @

* Excerpt from "Survival City: Adventures Among the Ruins of Atomic America" (book by Tom Vanderbilt, 2010): @

* Excerpt from "Fallout Shelter: Designing for Civil Defense in the Cold War" (book by David Monteyne, 2011): @

* "Incorporation of Shelter Into Schools" (Office of Civil Defense, November 1962): @

* "Civil Defense Shelter Options for Fallout and Blast Protection (Dual-Purpose)" (IIT Research Institute, May 1967): @

* "460 Atomic-Age Kids in Underground School" (Sarasota Journal, August 1962): @

* "Underground School is Fallout Shelter" (Popular Science, October 1962): @
* Earlier post on fallout shelters (September 1961): @

* Earlier post on fallout shelter sign (December 1, 1961): @

---

Undated: Harvard Psilocybin Project

Headed by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert of Harvard's Department of Psychology, the project ends its work amid concerns by other faculty members and investigations by authorities into the use (or suspected misuse) of psilocybin. As part of Leary's and Alpert's research, psychedelics had been administered to students and prisoners.

* Entry from Harvard's psychology department: @

* "The Strange Case of the Harvard Drug Scandal" (Look magazine, November 5, 1963): @

* Letter from Leary and Alpert to Harvard Crimson (December 13, 1962): @

* "Timothy Leary and Havard, Reunited At Last" (from Timothy Leary Archives): @
* "Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment: A 34-Year Follow-Up Study" (from Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1998): @ and @

* "The Good Friday Marsh Chapel Experiment" (1994, St. Petersburg Times): @

* The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil Killed the Fifties and Ushered in a New Age for America" (2011 book by Don Lattin): @

* Talk by Lattin (from www.c-spanvideo.org): @

* "Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond" (1992 book by Martin A. Lee and Bruce Shlain): @

* "Storming Heaven: LSD & The American Dream" (1998 book by Jay Stevens): @

* Earlier post on Leary (August 9, 1960): @

* Earlier post on Leary (August 18, 1961): @

---

Wednesday, October 4, 1961: McComb, Mississippi

From The Associated Press: "A civil rights demonstration on the City Hall steps resulted in the mass arrests of 144 Negro pupils and one white man. The group -- junior high and high school pupils -- was protesting the expulsion from school of four Negroes Wednesday arrested earlier in a chain store sit-in. Police said several white men punched the lone white demonstrator before police rescued him. He was jailed 'for his own protection,' police said. Demonstrators marched with signs through the streets of this southwest Mississippi town and made speeches outside the City Hall. Police say they booked all of them on breach of peace charges. The Congress of Racial Equality at Jackson identified the white man as Bob Zellener, 22, of Atlanta. CORE said he is a field worker for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Police Chief George Guy said Zellener's assailants left before deputies could arrest them."

For some weeks tensions had been increasing in and around McComb, particularly since September, when Herbert Lee, a black farmer working to register other blacks to vote, was shot and killed by E.H. Hurst, a white state legislator. Hurst claimed he acted in self-defense; a coroner's jury ruled that Lee's death was justifiable homicide.

* Summary of McComb voter registration efforts (from Civil Rights Movement Veterans website): @

* Interviews with key figures in McComb events: (joint project of McComb High School and The Urban School of San Francisco): @

* www.mccomblegacies.org: @

* Excerpt from "Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi" (book by John Dittmer): @

* Excerpt from "I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle" (book by Charles M. Payne): @

* Excerpt from "Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC's Dream for a New America" (book by Wesley C. Hogan): @

* "A Circle of Trust: Remembering SNCC" (book by Cheryl Lynn Greenberg): @

* "Woke Up This Morning with My Mind Stayed on Freedom" (how events in McComb inspired this civil rights song; from the book "Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs"): @

* Excerpt from "The Wrong Side of Murder Creek: A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement" (book by Bob Zellner and Constance Curry): @

* www.bobzellner.com: @

---

Wednesday, August 30, 1961: Integration of Atlanta schools

Nine black students begin classes at four high schools (Grady, Murphy, Brown and Northside) scattered across Atlanta, Georgia. The transition is without incident, unlike integration in New Orleans (November 1960; go here for entry) or the University of Georgia (January 1961; go here). But in terms of sheer numbers, integration in Atlanta would progress very slowly for the next few years. As the 1961 school year began, other Southern cities were also experiencing trouble-free integration -- Dallas and Galveston, Texas; Fort Lauderdale, Florida; and Little Rock, Arkansas.

Note about the photo: Murphy High School has a Civil War marker outside the building's front entrance. It reads: AN UNEXPECTED CLASH / July 22, 1864. The attack by Walker's & Bate's divs. (Hardee's A.C.) [Confederate symbol] struck the two brigades, Mersy's & Rice's, of Sweeny's 16th A.C. div. [Union symbol] enroute to support the 17th in E. Atlanta. Walker's troops came up Sugar Cr. valley from the S.; Bate's from the high ground eastward. Sweeny's men hastily formed defensively -- Rice facing E., Mercy S., the apex of the lines atop the hill where Laird's 14th Ohio Battery was posted and where Murphy High School stands. Blodgett's Missouri Battery H was at Rice's center, facing E. Though greatly outnumbered, Sweeny managed to hold the position, thereby foiling Hardee's thrust at the Federal rear. (Photo from Atlanta History Center.)

* Short summary from Atlanta magazine: @

* "Atlanta Public Schools Desegregate" (segment from WABE-FM, Atlanta): @

* Audio of President Kennedy's August 30 press conference: @

* "Prepared for Peace" (Time magazine, August 25): @

* "Southern Milestones" (Time magazine, September 8): @

* "With the Police on an Integration Job" (Life magazine, September 15): @

* Atlanta Public Schools timeline (through 1999): @

* More about the Sibley Commission (from New Georgia Encyclopedia) : @

* "Atlanta in the Civil Rights Movement, 1960-65" (from Atlanta Regional Council for Higher Education): @

* Excerpt from "Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement": @

---